Extreme El Niño events have had significant impacts on the environment, evidenced by events in 1982, 1997, and 2015, causing coral mortality and extreme weather.
Limited observations complicate our understanding of extreme El Niño events, with only three fully observed since satellite and moored observations began, presenting challenges in validation.
Climate models indicate that under greenhouse warming, we may experience increased rainfall and SST variability associated with stronger or more frequent extreme El Niño events.
Historical paleoclimatic evidence shows a complex relationship with ENSO, as past variability appears largely insensitive to external forcings, yet also exhibits forced change during glacial periods.
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